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latter half of the 19th century

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a long Victorian boom

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represented a dynamic of a great production and circulation of plenty

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new ideas

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effervescence

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a feeling of possibility

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population growth increasing

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intensified interdependence between societies

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the world had a center, located in Europe

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the British economy, and London in particular

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capitalist frontiers spread into hinterlands

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tribe-like people's displaced

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animals displaced, e.g. buffaloes, tigers, elephants

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in spite of the bounty produced by the Victorian boom, not all was so euphoric

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by 1914 there was an important distemper, a disenchantment

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there were many anxieties about it before WWI brought it down

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regimes were much more fragile and precarious than we realize

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anti-colonial struggles

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against core metropolitan societies radiating out of Europe

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fighting against forced and involuntary incorporation

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protests against the elites in countries to be able to be able tot take part in the bounty of globalization

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capitalization produced surpluses but it was unevenly distributed

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Cubans fighting Spain

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one of the last of first round of colonies fighting for their independence

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Cuban and Filipino efforts

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using new models of warfare

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anticipated what would happen later

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imperial armies poised again local guerilla movements

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over the 20th century, warfare evolved from being the classical story of organized armies to confrontation between less organized groups

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blurs the boundaries between combatants and civilians

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implications for how we understand total war

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guerilla forces draw their sustenance from villages and towns

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intentionally blur the line between civilian and combatant

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imperial armies are struggling against civilians

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they find themselves waging wars not against armies but entire societies

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often involves warfare of armies against civilians

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1898 Cuba

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first mention of concentration camp

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attempt to fight guerilla warfare, isolating rural people from the insurgents who were waging unconventional warfare against imperial armies

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savage wars of peace, spread from 1890s onward

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African upheavals

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South Africa

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uprising on the part of the descendants of the Dutch settlers, the Voortrekkers, against the British rulers

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Boer Republics

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The Orange Free State

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gold had been discovered

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British called this a war of pacification

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a kind of warfare people had never seen before

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fighting Boer guerillas: villagers, civilians

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much ethical controversy

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the war ended with a compromise, which later led to Apartheid

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Germany

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Namibia

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extermination practices deployed by armies

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the Herero people rose up against the German colonialists

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land-grabbing efforts on the part of the German government

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what we would now call ethnic cleansing or ethnic extermination

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creating camps and allowing disease to spread in such a way that it would destroy native populations

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the images where horrific

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arable lands were cleared

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those who resisted had their wells poisoned

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General von Trotha: "All the Herero must leave the land. If they refuse, then I will force them to do it with the big guns. Any Herero found within German borders, with or without a gun, will be shot. No prisoners will be taken. This is my decision for the Herero people."

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Kipling:

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"Take up the White Man's burden, the savage wars of peace. Fill full the mouth of famine and bid the sickness cease. And when your goal is nearest the end for others sought, watch sloth and heathen folly bring all your hopes to nought."